114-484: A vampire is a mythical creature that subsists by feeding on the vital essence (generally in the form of blood ) of the living. In European folklore , vampires are undead humanoid creatures that often visited loved ones and caused mischief or deaths in the neighbourhoods which they inhabited while they were alive. They wore shrouds and were often described as bloated and of ruddy or dark countenance, markedly different from today's gaunt, pale vampire which dates from
228-637: A shmirah (guarding) after death as the corpse could be a vessel for evil spirits. In 1645, the Greek librarian of the Vatican, Leo Allatius , produced the first methodological description of the Balkan beliefs in vampires (Greek: vrykolakas) in his work De Graecorum hodie quorundam opinationibus ("On certain modern opinions among the Greeks"). Vampires properly originating in folklore were widely reported from Eastern Europe in
342-776: A hybrid , that has not been proven and that is described in folklore (including myths and legends ), but may be featured in historical accounts before modernity . In the classical era , monstrous creatures such as the Cyclops and the Minotaur appear in heroic tales for the protagonist to destroy. Other creatures, such as the unicorn , were claimed in accounts of natural history by various scholars of antiquity. Some legendary creatures originated in traditional mythology and were believed to be real creatures--for example, dragons , griffins and unicorns. Others are based on real encounters or garbled accounts of travellers' tales, such as
456-522: A malevolent spirit possessing a corpse or by being bitten by a vampire. Belief in such legends became so pervasive that in some areas it caused mass hysteria and even public executions of people believed to be vampires. It is difficult to make a single, definitive description of the folkloric vampire, though there are several elements common to many European legends. Vampires were usually reported as bloated in appearance, and ruddy, purplish, or dark in colour; these characteristics were often attributed to
570-445: A bestial form within their graves. Ubırs possess the ability to shape-shift, assuming the forms of both humans and various animals. Furthermore, they can seize the soul of a living being and exert control over its body. Someone inhabited by a vampire constantly experiences hunger, becoming increasingly aggressive when unable to find sustenance, ultimately resorting to drinking human blood. Many myths surrounding vampires originated during
684-586: A bullet through the coffin was taken. For resistant cases, the body was dismembered and the pieces burned, mixed with water, and administered to family members as a cure. In Saxon regions of Germany, a lemon was placed in the mouth of suspected vampires. Tales of supernatural beings consuming the blood or flesh of the living have been found in nearly every culture around the world for many centuries. The term vampire did not exist in ancient times. Blood drinking and similar activities were attributed to demons or spirits who would eat flesh and drink blood; even
798-484: A door (in some cultures, vampires do not have a reflection and sometimes do not cast a shadow, perhaps as a manifestation of the vampire's lack of a soul or their weakness to silver). This attribute is not universal (the Greek vrykolakas/tympanios was capable of both reflection and shadow), but was used by Bram Stoker in Dracula and has remained popular with subsequent authors and filmmakers. Some traditions also hold that
912-456: A fantastical approach. It seems the religious and moral implications of animals were far more significant than matching a physical likeness in these renderings. Nona C. Flores explains, "By the tenth century, artists were increasingly bound by allegorical interpretation, and abandoned naturalistic depictions." Tatar language Tatar ( / ˈ t ɑː t ər / TAH -tər ; татар теле , tatar tele or татарча , tatarça )
1026-587: A general treatise on vampirism and the Marquis d'Argens cites local cases. Theologians and clergymen also address the topic. Some theological disputes arose. The non-decay of vampires' bodies could recall the incorruption of the bodies of the saints of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches. Indeed, vampires were traditionally considered highly problematic within Christianity, as their apparent immortal existence ran against
1140-479: A hole in the back of her neck, with which she sucked the blood of children. Filling the hole with her hair would drive her off. Corpses had their mouths filled with glass beads, eggs under each armpit, and needles in their palms to prevent them from becoming langsuir. This description would also fit the Sundel Bolongs . In Vietnam , the word used to translate Western vampires, "ma cà rồng", originally referred to
1254-528: A mass hysteria throughout much of Europe. The panic began with an outbreak of alleged vampire attacks in East Prussia in 1721 and in the Habsburg monarchy from 1725 to 1734, which spread to other localities. The first infamous vampire case involved the corpses of Petar Blagojević from Serbia. Blagojević was reported to have died at the age of 62, but allegedly returned after his death asking his son for food. When
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#17330925790311368-735: A mixture of French and African Vodu or voodoo . The term Rougarou possibly comes from the French loup-garou (meaning "werewolf") and is common in the culture of Mauritius . The stories of the Rougarou are widespread through the Caribbean Islands and Louisiana in the United States. Similar female monsters are the Soucouyant of Trinidad , and the Tunda and Patasola of Colombian folklore , while
1482-555: A number of Russian loanwords which have palatalized consonants in Russian and are thus written the same in Tatar (often with the "soft sign" ь ). The Tatar standard pronunciation also requires palatalization in such loanwords; however, some Tatar may pronounce them non-palatalized. In native words there are six types of syllables ( C onsonant, V owel, S onorant ): Loanwords allow other types: CSV ( gra -mota), CSVC (käs- trül ), etc. Stress
1596-545: A person's soul (魄 pò ) fails to leave the deceased's body. Jiangshi are usually represented as mindless creatures with no independent thought. This monster has greenish-white furry skin, perhaps derived from fungus or mould growing on corpses. Jiangshi legends have inspired a genre of jiangshi films and literature in Hong Kong and East Asia. Films like Encounters of the Spooky Kind and Mr. Vampire were released during
1710-542: A popular explanation, a pagan worship of upyri was already recorded in Old Russian in the 11-13th century. Some claim an origin from Lithuanian . Oxford and others maintain a Turkish origin (from Turkish uber, meaning "witch"), which passed to English via Hungarian and French derivation. In addition, others sustain that the modern word "Vampire" is derived from the Old Slavic and Turkic languages form "онпыр (onpyr)", with
1824-503: A record of oak in Silesia . Aspen was also used for stakes, as it was believed that Christ's cross was made from aspen (aspen branches on the graves of purported vampires were also believed to prevent their risings at night). Potential vampires were most often staked through the heart, though the mouth was targeted in Russia and northern Germany and the stomach in north-eastern Serbia. Piercing
1938-448: A scientist Gabdulkhay Akhatov , who is considered to be the founder of the modern Tatar dialectological school. Spoken idioms of Siberian Tatars, which differ significantly from the above two, are often considered as the third dialect group of Tatar by some, but as an independent language on its own by others. The Central or Middle dialectal group is spoken in Kazan and most of Tatarstan and
2052-436: A similar yet slightly different scheme with a third, higher mid, height, and with nine vowels. According to Makhmutova (1969) Tatar has three vowel heights: high , mid and low , and four tongue positions: front, front-central, back-central and back (as they are named when cited). The mid back unrounded vowel '' ë is usually transcribed as ı , though it differs from the corresponding Turkish vowel. The tenth vowel ï
2166-475: A stake to be driven through his heart. Later, his corpse was also beheaded. From 1679, Philippe Rohr devotes an essay to the dead who chew their shrouds in their graves, a subject resumed by Otto in 1732, and then by Michael Ranft in 1734. The subject was based on the observation that when digging up graves, it was discovered that some corpses had at some point either devoured the interior fabric of their coffin or their own limbs. Ranft described in his treatise of
2280-425: A tradition in some parts of Germany, that to prevent the dead from masticating they placed a mound of dirt under their chin in the coffin, placed a piece of money and a stone in the mouth, or tied a handkerchief tightly around the throat. In 1732 an anonymous writer writing as "the doctor Weimar" discusses the non-putrefaction of these creatures, from a theological point of view. In 1733, Johann Christoph Harenberg wrote
2394-463: A type of demon that haunts modern-day Phú Thọ Province , within the communities of the Tai Dam ethnic minority . The word was first mentioned in the chronicles of 18th-century Confucian scholar Lê Quý Đôn , who spoke of a creature that lives among humans, but stuffs its toes into its nostrils at night and flies by its ears into houses with pregnant women to suck their blood. Having fed on these women,
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#17330925790312508-477: A vampire cannot enter a house unless invited by the owner; after the first invitation they can come and go as they please. Though folkloric vampires were believed to be more active at night, they were not generally considered vulnerable to sunlight . Reports in 1693 and 1694 concerning citings of vampires in Poland and Russia claimed that when a vampire's grave was recognized, eating bread baked with its blood mixed into
2622-518: A vampiric being came across a sack of rice, it would have to count every grain; this is a theme encountered in myths from the Indian subcontinent , as well as in South American tales of witches and other sorts of evil or mischievous spirits or beings. Many rituals were used to identify a vampire. One method of finding a vampire's grave involved leading a virgin boy through a graveyard or church grounds on
2736-514: A virgin stallion—the horse would supposedly balk at the grave in question. Generally a black horse was required, though in Albania it should be white. Holes appearing in the earth over a grave were taken as a sign of vampirism. Corpses thought to be vampires were generally described as having a healthier appearance than expected, plump and showing little or no signs of decomposition. In some cases, when suspected graves were opened, villagers even described
2850-690: Is a Turkic language spoken by the Volga Tatars mainly located in modern Tatarstan ( European Russia ), as well as Siberia and Crimea . The Tatar language is spoken in Russia by about 5.3 million people, and also by communities in Azerbaijan , China , Finland , Georgia , Israel , Kazakhstan , Latvia , Lithuania , Romania , Turkey , Ukraine , the US , Uzbekistan , and several other countries. Globally, there are more than 7 million speakers of Tatar. Tatar
2964-623: Is a common example; a branch of wild rose and hawthorn are sometimes associated with causing harm to vampires, and in Europe, mustard seeds would be sprinkled on the roof of a house to keep them away. Other apotropaics include sacred items, such as crucifix , rosary , or holy water . Some folklore also states that vampires are unable to walk on consecrated ground , such as that of churches or temples, or cross running water. Although not traditionally regarded as an apotropaic, mirrors have been used to ward off vampires when placed, facing outwards, on
3078-420: Is also an Albanian surname. Cultural practices often arose that were intended to prevent a recently deceased loved one from turning into an undead revenant. Burying a corpse upside-down was widespread, as was placing earthly objects, such as scythes or sickles , near the grave to satisfy any demons entering the body or to appease the dead so that it would not wish to arise from its coffin. This method resembles
3192-515: Is also the mother tongue for several thousand Mari , a Finnic people; Mordva 's Qaratay group also speak a variant of Kazan Tatar. In the 2010 census , 69% of Russian Tatars claimed at least some knowledge of the Tatar language. In Tatarstan, 93% of Tatars and 3.6% of Russians claimed to have at least some knowledge of the Tatar language. In neighbouring Bashkortostan , 67% of Tatars, 27% of Bashkirs , and 1.3% of Russians claimed to understand basic Tatar language. Tatar, along with Russian,
3306-601: Is also used in Kazakhstan . The Republic of Tatarstan passed a law in 1999 that came into force in 2001 establishing an official Tatar Latin alphabet. A Russian federal law overrode it in 2002, making Cyrillic the sole official script in Tatarstan since. In 2004, an attempt to introduce a Latin-based alphabet for Tatar was further abandoned when the Constitutional Court ruled that the federal law of 15 November 2002 mandating
3420-457: Is another medieval example of an undead creature with similarities to vampires. Vampiric beings were rarely written about in Jewish literature; the 16th-century rabbi David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra (Radbaz) wrote of an uncharitable old woman whose body was unguarded and unburied for three days after she died and rose as a vampiric entity, killing hundreds of people. He linked this event to the lack of
3534-637: Is realized as the diphthong ëy ( IPA: [ɯɪ] ), which only occurs word-finally, but it has been argued to be an independent phoneme. Phonetically, the native vowels are approximately thus (with the Cyrillic letters and the usual Latin romanization in angle brackets): In polysyllabic words, the front-back distinction is lost in reduced vowels: all become mid-central. The mid reduced vowels in an unstressed position are frequently elided, as in кеше keşe [kĕˈʃĕ] > [kʃĕ] 'person', or кышы qışı [qɤ̆ˈʃɤ̆] > [qʃɤ̆] '(his) winter'. Low back / ɑ /
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3648-417: Is remembered as the quintessential vampire novel and provided the basis of the modern vampire legend, even though it was published after fellow Irish author Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu 's 1872 novel Carmilla . The success of this book spawned a distinctive vampire genre , still popular in the 21st century, with books, films , television shows, and video games. The vampire has since become a dominant figure in
3762-496: Is restricted to the humanities . In other regions Tatar is primarily a spoken language and the number of speakers as well as their proficiency tends to decrease. Tatar is popular as a written language only in Tatar-speaking areas where schools with Tatar language lessons are situated. On the other hand, Tatar is the only language in use in rural districts of Tatarstan . Since 2017, Tatar language classes are no longer mandatory in
3876-494: Is rounded [ ɒ ] in the first syllable and after [ ɒ ] , but not in the last, as in бала bala [bɒˈlɑ] 'child', балаларга balalarğa [bɒlɒlɒrˈʁɑ] 'to children'. In Russian loans there are also [ ɨ ] , [ ɛ ] , [ ɔ ] , and [ ä ] , written the same as the native vowels: ы, е/э, о, а respectively. Historically, the Old Turkic mid vowels have raised from mid to high, whereas
3990-429: Is said to be a creature that feeds upon the flesh or drinks the blood of domesticated animals , leading some to consider it a kind of vampire. The "chupacabra hysteria" was frequently associated with deep economic and political crises, particularly during the mid-1990s. Mythical creature A legendary creature (also called a mythical creature or mythological creature ) is a type of fantasy entity, typically
4104-624: Is significantly more irregular than any other verbs: its 2nd person singular imperative is диген, while its expected regular form is repurposed as the present tense forms (дим, диң, ди...). These predicative suffixes have now fallen into disuse, or rarely used. During its history, Tatar has been written in Arabic , Latin and Cyrillic scripts . Before 1928, Tatar was mostly written in Arabic script (Иске имля/ İske imlâ , "Old orthography", to 1920; Яңа имла/ Yaña imlâ , "New orthography", 1920–1928). During
4218-788: Is the basis of the standard literary Tatar language. Middle Tatar includes the Nagaibak dialect . The Western (Mişär) dialect is distinguished from the Central dialect especially by the absence of the uvular q and ğ and the rounded å of the first syllable. Letters ç and c are pronounced as affricates . Regional differences exist also. Mishar is the dialect spoken by the Tatar minority of Finland . Two main isoglosses that characterize Siberian Tatar are ç as [ ts ] and c as [ j ] , corresponding to standard [ ɕ ] and [ ʑ ] . There are also grammatical differences within
4332-702: Is the official language of the Republic of Tatarstan . The official script of Tatar language is based on the Cyrillic script with some additional letters. The Republic of Tatarstan passed a law in 1999, which came into force in 2001, establishing an official Tatar Latin alphabet. A Russian federal law overrode it in 2002, making Cyrillic the sole official script in Tatarstan since. Unofficially, other scripts are used as well, mostly Latin and Arabic. All official sources in Tatarstan must use Cyrillic on their websites and in publishing. In other cases, where Tatar has no official status,
4446-407: Is used after 3rd person possessive suffix. Nouns ending in -и, -у, or -ү, although phonologically vowels, take consonantic endings. The declension of personal and demonstrative pronouns tends to be irregular. Irregular forms are in bold . The distribution of present tense suffixes is complicated, with the former (also with vowel harmony) is used with verb stems ending in consonants, and the latter
4560-454: Is used with verb stem ending in vowels (with the last vowel being deleted, эшләү – эшл и , compare Turkish işlemek – continuous işl iyor ). The distribution of indefinite future tense is more complicated in consonant-ending stems, it is resolved by -арга/-ырга infinitives (язарга – яз ар ). However, because some have verb citation forms in verbal noun (-у), this rule becomes somewhat unpredictable. Tenses are negated with -ма, however in
4674-399: Is usually on the final syllable. However, some suffixes cannot be stressed, so the stress shifts to the syllable before that suffix, even if the stressed syllable is the third or fourth from the end. A number of Tatar words and grammatical forms have the natural stress on the first syllable. Loanwords, mainly from Russian, usually preserve their original stress (unless the original stress is on
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4788-508: The karkanxholl (a lycanthropic creature with an iron mail shirt) or the lugat (a water-dwelling ghost or monster). The dhampir sprung of a karkanxholl has the unique ability to discern the karkanxholl ; from this derives the expression the dhampir knows the lugat . The lugat cannot be seen, he can only be killed by the dhampir, who himself is usually the son of a lugat. In different regions, animals can be revenants as lugats; also, living people during their sleep. Dhampiraj
4902-513: The Betsileo people of Madagascar tell of the ramanga , an outlaw or living vampire who drinks the blood and eats the nail clippings of nobles. In colonial East Africa, rumors circulated to the effect that employees of the state such as firemen and nurses were vampires, known in Swahili as wazimamoto . The Rougarou is an example of how a vampire belief can result from a combination of beliefs, here
5016-618: The Chulym language ) after detailed linguistic study. However, the Chulym language was never classified as a dialect of Tatar language. Confusion arose because of the endoethnonym "Tatars" used by the Chulyms. The question of classifying the Chulym language as a dialect of the Khakass language was debatable. A brief linguistic analysis shows that many of these dialects exhibit features which are quite different from
5130-605: The Empusae , the Lamia , the Mormo and the striges . Over time the first two terms became general words to describe witches and demons respectively. Empusa was the daughter of the goddess Hecate and was described as a demonic, bronze -footed creature. She feasted on blood by transforming into a young woman and seduced men as they slept before drinking their blood. The Lamia preyed on young children in their beds at night, sucking their blood, as did
5244-526: The Holy Spirit , and the classical griffin represented a guardian of the dead. Medieval bestiaries included animals regardless of biological reality; the basilisk represented the devil , while the manticore symbolised temptation. One function of mythical animals in the Middle Ages was allegory . Unicorns, for example, were described as extraordinarily swift and uncatchable by traditional methods. It
5358-498: The Hydra to be killed by Heracles , while Aeneas battles with the harpies . These monsters thus have the basic function of emphasizing the greatness of the heroes involved. Some classical era creatures, such as the (horse/human) centaur , chimaera , Triton and the flying horse Pegasus , are found also in Indian art . Similarly, sphinxes appear as winged lions in Indian art and
5472-529: The Lilu from Hebrew demonology . Lilitu was considered a demon and was often depicted as subsisting on the blood of babies, and estries , female shapeshifting, blood-drinking demons, were said to roam the night among the population, seeking victims. According to Sefer Hasidim , estries were creatures created in the twilight hours before God rested . An injured estrie could be healed by eating bread and salt given to her by her attacker. Greco-Roman mythology described
5586-558: The Mapuche of southern Chile have the bloodsucking snake known as the Peuchen . Aloe vera hung backwards behind or near a door was thought to ward off vampiric beings in South American folklore. Aztec mythology described tales of the Cihuateteo , skull-faced spirits of those who died in childbirth who stole children and entered into sexual liaisons with the living, driving them mad. During
5700-524: The Middle Ages , the Christian Churches reinterpreted vampires from their previous folk existence into minions of Satan , and used an allegory to communicate a doctrine to Christians : "Just as a vampire takes a sinner's very spirit into itself by drinking his blood, so also can a righteous Christian by drinking Christ's blood take the divine spirit into himself." The interpretation of vampires under
5814-452: The Piasa Bird of North America. In medieval art , animals, both real and mythical, played important roles. These included decorative forms as in medieval jewellery, sometimes with their limbs intricately interlaced. Animal forms were used to add humor or majesty to objects. In Christian art , animals carried symbolic meanings, where for example the lamb symbolized Christ, a dove indicated
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#17330925790315928-535: The Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718, officials noted the local practice of exhuming bodies and "killing vampires". These reports, prepared between 1725 and 1732, received widespread publicity. The notion of vampirism has existed for millennia. Cultures such as the Mesopotamians , Hebrews , Ancient Greeks , Manipuri and Romans had tales of demons and spirits which are considered precursors to modern vampires. Despite
6042-545: The Vegetable Lamb of Tartary , a sheeplike animal which supposedly grew tethered to the earth. A variety of mythical animals appear in the art and stories of the classical era . For example, in the Odyssey , monstrous creatures include the Cyclops , Scylla and Charybdis for the hero Odysseus to confront. Other tales include Medusa to be defeated by Perseus , the (human/bull) Minotaur to be destroyed by Theseus , and
6156-689: The Visayan Manananggal ("self-segmenter"). The mandurugo is a variety of the aswang that takes the form of an attractive girl by day, and develops wings and a long, hollow, threadlike tongue by night. The tongue is used to suck up blood from a sleeping victim. The manananggal is described as being an older, beautiful woman capable of severing its upper torso in order to fly into the night with huge batlike wings and prey on unsuspecting, sleeping pregnant women in their homes. They use an elongated proboscis-like tongue to suck fetuses from these pregnant women. They also prefer to eat entrails (specifically
6270-452: The ancient Greek practice of placing an obolus in the corpse's mouth to pay the toll to cross the River Styx in the underworld. The coin may have also been intended to ward off any evil spirits from entering the body, and this may have influenced later vampire folklore. This tradition persisted in modern Greek folklore about the vrykolakas , in which a wax cross and piece of pottery with
6384-401: The buttocks or away from the body. This act was seen as a way of hastening the departure of the soul, which in some cultures was said to linger in the corpse. The vampire's head, body, or clothes could also be spiked and pinned to the earth to prevent rising. Romani people drove steel or iron needles into a corpse's heart and placed bits of steel in the mouth, over the eyes, ears and between
6498-524: The devil was considered synonymous with the vampire. Almost every culture associates blood drinking with some kind of revenant or demon, or in some cases a deity. In India tales of vetālas , ghoulish beings that inhabit corpses, have been compiled in the Baitāl Pacīsī ; a prominent story in the Kathāsaritsāgara tells of King Vikramāditya and his nightly quests to capture an elusive one. Piśāca ,
6612-590: The gelloudes or Gello . Like the Lamia, the striges feasted on children, but also preyed on adults. They were described as having the bodies of crows or birds in general, and were later incorporated into Roman mythology as strix , a kind of nocturnal bird that fed on human flesh and blood. In Turkic mythology , an ubır is a vampiric creature characterized by various regional depictions. According to legends, individuals heavily steeped in sin and practitioners of black magic transform into ubırs upon their death, taking on
6726-437: The heart and the liver ) and the phlegm of sick people. The Malaysian Penanggalan is a woman who obtained her beauty through the active use of black magic or other unnatural means, and is most commonly described in local folklore to be dark or demonic in nature. She is able to detach her fanged head which flies around in the night looking for blood, typically from pregnant women. Malaysians hung jeruju (thistles) around
6840-554: The horror genre. The exact etymology is unclear. The term "vampire" is the earliest recorded in English, Latin and French and they refer to vampirism in Russia, Poland and North Macedonia. The English term was derived (possibly via French vampyre ) from the German Vampir , in turn, derived in the early 18th century from the Serbian вампир ( vampir ). Though this being
6954-473: The incorruption of the bodies of saints was the effect of a divine intervention, all the phenomena attributed to vampires were purely natural or the fruit of "imagination, terror and fear". In other words, vampires did not exist. In the early 18th century, despite the decline of many popular folkloric beliefs during the Age of Enlightenment , there was a dramatic increase in the popular belief in vampires, resulting in
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#17330925790317068-451: The ma cà rồng then returns to its house and cleans itself by dipping its toes into barrels of sappanwood water. This allows the ma cà rồng to live undetected among humans during the day, before heading out to attack again by night. Jiangshi , sometimes called "Chinese vampires" by Westerners, are reanimated corpses that hop around, killing living creatures to absorb life essence ( qì ) from their victims. They are said to be created when
7182-488: The medieval period . With the arrival of Christianity in Greece , and other parts of Europe , the vampire "began to take on decidedly Christian characteristics." As various regions of the continent converted to Christianity , the vampire was viewed as "a dead person who retained a semblance of life and could leave its grave-much in the same way that Jesus had risen after His death and burial and appeared before His followers." In
7296-567: The 19th century, Russian Christian missionary Nikolay Ilminsky devised the first Cyrillic alphabet for Tatar. This alphabet is still used by Christian Tatars ( Kryashens ). In the Soviet Union after 1928, Tatar was written with a Latin alphabet called Jaꞑalif . In 1939, in Tatarstan and all other parts of the Soviet Union, a Cyrillic script was adopted and is still used to write Tatar. It
7410-494: The 20th century. By the 1980s, the study and teaching of Tatar in the public education system was limited to rural schools. However, Tatar-speaking pupils had little chance of entering university because higher education was available in Russian almost exclusively. As of 2001, Tatar was considered a potentially endangered language while Siberian Tatar received "endangered" and "seriously endangered" statuses, respectively. Higher education in Tatar can only be found in Tatarstan , and
7524-510: The Christian Churches established connotations that are still associated in the vampire genre today. For example, the "ability of the cross to hurt and ward off vampires is distinctly due to its Christian association." The 12th-century British historians and chroniclers Walter Map and William of Newburgh recorded accounts of revenants, though records in English legends of vampiric beings after this date are scant. The Old Norse draugr
7638-487: The Christian belief that all true believers may look forward to an eternal existence with body and soul as they were resurrected , but only at the end of time when Jesus returns to judge the living and the dead . Those who are resurrected as immortal before this are thus in no way part of the divine plan of salvation. The imperfect state of the vampire body and how they, in spite of their immortal nature, still needed to feed of
7752-471: The Empress passed laws prohibiting the opening of graves and the desecration of bodies, thus ending the vampire epidemic. Other European countries followed suit. Despite this condemnation, the vampire lived on in artistic works and in local folklore. Beings having many of the attributes of European vampires appear in the folklore of Africa, Asia, North and South America, and India. Classified as vampires, all share
7866-452: The Old Turkic high vowels have become the Tatar reduced mid series. (The same shifts have also happened in Bashkir .) Tatar consonants usually undergo slight palatalization before front vowels. However, this allophony is not significant and does not constitute a phonemic status. This differs from Russian where palatalized consonants are not allophones but phonemes on their own. There are
7980-768: The Volga–Ural Tatar varieties, and should be classified as Turkic varieties belonging to several sub-groups of the Turkic languages, distinct from Kipchak languages to which Volga–Ural Tatar belongs. There exist several interpretations of the Tatar vowel phonemic inventory. In total Tatar has nine or ten native vowels, and three or four loaned vowels (mainly in Russian loanwords). According to Baskakov (1988) Tatar has only two vowel heights, high and low . There are two low vowels, front and back , while there are eight high vowels: front and back, round (R+) and unround (R−), normal and short (or reduced). Poppe (1963) proposed
8094-559: The West; these are distinct from the original local words for the creature). In Albanian the words lu(v)gat and dhampir are used; the latter seems to be derived from the Gheg Albanian words dham 'tooth' and pir 'to drink'. The origin of the modern word Vampire ( Upiór means Hortdan , Vampire or witch in Turkic and Slavic myths.) comes from the term Ubir-Upiór, the origin of
8208-747: The addition of the "v" sound in front of the large nasal vowel (on), characteristic of Old Bulgarian. Parallels are found in virtually all Slavic and Turkic languages: Bulgarian and Macedonian вампир ( vampir ), Turkish : Ubır, Obur, Obır , Tatar language : Убыр ( Ubır ), Chuvash language : Вупăр ( Vupăr ), Bosnian : вампир ( vampir ), Croatian vampir , Czech and Slovak upír , Polish wąpierz , and (perhaps East Slavic -influenced) upiór , Ukrainian упир ( upyr ), Russian упырь ( upyr' ), Belarusian упыр ( upyr ), from Old East Slavic упирь ( upir' ) (many of these languages have also borrowed forms such as "vampir/wampir" subsequently from
8322-508: The archaic verb vpeřit means 'to thrust violently') as an etymological background, and thus translates upír as 'someone who thrusts, bites'. The term was introduced to German readers by the Polish Jesuit priest Gabriel Rzączyński in 1721. The word vampire (as vampyre ) first appeared in English in 1732, in news reports about vampire "epidemics" in eastern Europe. After Austria gained control of northern Serbia and Oltenia with
8436-456: The belief that the government was colluding with vampires. Fears and violence recurred in late 2017, with 6 people accused of being vampires killed. In early 1970, local press spread rumours that a vampire haunted Highgate Cemetery in London. Amateur vampire hunters flocked in large numbers to the cemetery. Several books have been written about the case, notably by Sean Manchester, a local man who
8550-411: The blood of the living, further reflected the problematic aspect of the vampires. Contrary to how the incorruptible saints foreshadowed the immortality promised all true Christians at the end of time, the immortality of the undead vampires was thus not a sign of salvation, but of perdition. The unholy dimension of vampirism may also be reflected in how, in parts of Russia, the very word heretic , eretik ,
8664-476: The corpse as having fresh blood from a victim all over its face. Evidence that a vampire was active in a given locality included death of cattle, sheep, relatives or neighbours. Folkloric vampires could also make their presence felt by engaging in minor poltergeist -styled activity, such as hurling stones on roofs or moving household objects, and pressing on people in their sleep. Apotropaics —items able to ward off revenants—are common in vampire folklore. Garlic
8778-448: The dead. The deadly disease tuberculosis , or "consumption" as it was known at the time, was believed to be caused by nightly visitations on the part of a dead family member who had died of consumption themselves. The most famous, and most recently recorded, case of suspected vampirism is that of nineteen-year-old Mercy Brown , who died in Exeter, Rhode Island in 1892. Her father, assisted by
8892-578: The dialect, scattered across Siberia. Many linguists claim the origins of Siberian Tatar dialects are actually independent of Volga–Ural Tatar; these dialects are quite remote both from Standard Tatar and from each other, often preventing mutual comprehension. The claim that this language is part of the modern Tatar language is typically supported by linguists in Kazan, Moscow and by Siberian Tatar linguists and denounced by some Russian and Tatar ethnographs. Over time, some of these dialects were given distinct names and recognized as separate languages (e.g.
9006-612: The doors and windows of houses, hoping the Penanggalan would not enter for fear of catching its intestines on the thorns. The Leyak is a similar being from Balinese folklore of Indonesia. A Kuntilanak or Matianak in Indonesia, or Pontianak or Langsuir in Malaysia, is a woman who died during childbirth and became undead, seeking revenge and terrorising villages. She appeared as an attractive woman with long black hair that covered
9120-860: The early 19th century. Vampiric entities have been recorded in cultures around the world ; the term vampire was popularized in Western Europe after reports of an 18th-century mass hysteria of a pre-existing folk belief in Southeastern and Eastern Europe that in some cases resulted in corpses being staked and people being accused of vampirism. Local variants in Southeastern Europe were also known by different names, such as shtriga in Albania , vrykolakas in Greece and strigoi in Romania , cognate to Italian strega , meaning ' witch '. In modern times,
9234-453: The evidence for vampirism. Numerous readers, including both Voltaire (critical) and numerous demonologists (supportive), interpreted the treatise as claiming that vampires existed. The controversy in Austria ceased when Empress Maria Theresa sent her personal physician, Gerard van Swieten , to investigate the claims of vampiric entities. Van Swieten concluded that vampires did not exist and
9348-609: The family physician, removed her from her tomb two months after her death, cut out her heart and burned it to ashes. Sarah Roberts (1872–1913) was an Englishwoman who died and was buried in Pisco, Peru . After her death, a legend evolved that she was a vampire and bride of Dracula. On June 9 1993, the 80th anniversary of her death, locals in Pisco feared she would come back to life and take her revenge. Vampires have appeared in Japanese cinema since
9462-401: The fingers at the time of burial. They also placed hawthorn in the corpse's sock or drove a hawthorn stake through the legs. In a 16th-century burial near Venice , a brick forced into the mouth of a female corpse has been interpreted as a vampire-slaying ritual by the archaeologists who discovered it in 2006. In Bulgaria , over 100 skeletons with metal objects, such as plough bits, embedded in
9576-619: The first person imperative forms deletes the last vowel, similar to the present tense does ( эшләү – эшл им ). Like plurals of nouns, the suffix -лар change depending the preceding consonants (-алар, but -ганнар). Some verbs, however, fall into this category. Dozens of them have irregular stems with a final mid vowel, but obscured on the infinitive ( уку – ук ы , ук ый , төзү – төз е , төз и ). The verbs кору "to build", тану "to disclaim", ташу "to spill" have contrastive meanings with verbs with their final vowelled counterparts, meaning "to dry", "to know", "to carry". The verb дию "to say"
9690-638: The flour, or simply drinking it, granted the possibility of protection. Other stories (primarily the Arnold Paole case) claimed the eating of dirt from the vampire's grave would have the same effect. Methods of destroying suspected vampires varied, with staking the most commonly cited method, particularly in South Slavic cultures. Ash was the preferred wood in Russia and the Baltic states, or hawthorn in Serbia, with
9804-551: The horn of a unicorn." This is because the translators of the King James erroneously translated the Hebrew word re'em as unicorn. Later versions translate this as wild ox. The unicorn's small size signifies the humility of Christ. Another common legendary creature that served allegorical functions within the Middle Ages was the dragon . Dragons were identified with serpents, though their attributes were greatly intensified. The dragon
9918-518: The hunting and staking of vampires. The hysteria, commonly referred to as the "vampire controversy," continued for a generation. At least sixteen contemporary treatises discussed the theological and philosophical implications of the vampire epidemic. Dom Augustine Calmet , a French theologian and scholar, published a comprehensive treatise in 1751 titled Treatise on the Apparitions of Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants which investigated and analysed
10032-400: The indefinite future tense and the verbal participle they become -мас and -мыйча instead, respectively. Alongside vowel-ending stems, the suffix also becomes -мый when negates the present tense. To form interrogatives, the suffix -мы is used. Definite past and conditional tenses use type II personal inflections instead. When in the case of present tense, short ending (-м) is used. After vowels,
10146-489: The inscription " Jesus Christ conquers" were placed on the corpse to prevent the body from becoming a vampire. Other methods commonly practised in Europe included severing the tendons at the knees or placing poppy seeds, millet , or sand on the ground at the grave site of a presumed vampire; this was intended to keep the vampire occupied all night by counting the fallen grains, indicating an association of vampires with arithmomania . Similar Chinese narratives state that if
10260-432: The jiangshi cinematic boom of the 1980s and 1990s. In modern fiction, the vampire tends to be depicted as a suave, charismatic villain . Vampire hunting societies still exist, but they are largely formed for social reasons. Allegations of vampire attacks swept through Malawi during late 2002 and early 2003, with mobs stoning one person to death and attacking at least four others, including Governor Eric Chiwaya , based on
10374-411: The last syllable, in such a case the stress in Tatar shifts to suffixes as usual, e.g. sovét > sovetlár > sovetlarğá ). Tatar phonotactics dictate many pronunciation changes which are not reflected in the orthography. Like other Turkic languages, Tatar is an agglutinative language . Tatar nouns are inflected for cases and numbers. Case suffixes change depending on the last consonants of
10488-501: The late 17th and 18th centuries. These tales formed the basis of the vampire legend that later entered Germany and England, where they were subsequently embellished and popularized. An early recording of the time came from the region of Istria in modern Croatia , in 1672; Local reports described a panic among the villagers inspired by the belief that Jure Grando had become a vampire after dying in 1656, drinking blood from victims and sexually harassing his widow. The village leader ordered
10602-462: The late 18th and 19th centuries the belief in vampires was widespread in parts of New England , particularly in Rhode Island and eastern Connecticut . There are many documented cases of families disinterring loved ones and removing their hearts in the belief that the deceased was a vampire who was responsible for sickness and death in the family, although the term "vampire" was never used to describe
10716-579: The late 1950s; the folklore behind it is western in origin. The Nukekubi is a being whose head and neck detach from its body to fly about seeking human prey at night. Legends of female vampiric beings who can detach parts of their upper body also occur in the Philippines , Malaysia , and Indonesia . There are two main vampiric creatures in the Philippines: the Tagalog Mandurugo ("blood-sucker") and
10830-455: The mysteries of death. Porphyria was linked with legends of vampirism in 1985 and received much media exposure, but has since been largely discredited. The charismatic and sophisticated vampire of modern fiction was born in 1819 with the publication of " The Vampyre " by the English writer John Polidori ; the story was highly successful and arguably the most influential vampire work of the early 19th century. Bram Stoker 's 1897 novel Dracula
10944-449: The neighbours. The Blagojević and Čečar incidents were well-documented. Government officials examined the bodies, wrote case reports, and published books throughout Europe. The problem was exacerbated by rural epidemics of so-called vampire attacks, undoubtedly caused by the higher amount of superstition that was present in village communities, with locals digging up bodies and in some cases, staking them. Even government officials engaged in
11058-409: The noun, while nouns ending in п/к are voiced to б/г (кита б ым) when a possessive suffix was added. Suffixes below are in back vowel, with front variant can be seen at #Phonology section. The declension of possessive suffixes is even more irregular, with the dative suffix -а used in 1st singular and 2nd singular suffixes, and the accusative, dative, locative, and ablative endings -н, -на, -нда, -ннан
11172-411: The occurrence of vampiric creatures in these ancient civilizations, the folklore for the entity known today as the vampire originates almost exclusively from early 18th-century southeastern Europe , when verbal traditions of many ethnic groups of the region were recorded and published. In most cases, vampires are revenants of evil beings, suicide victims, or witches , but they can also be created by
11286-499: The recent drinking of blood, which was often seen seeping from the mouth and nose when one was seen in its shroud or coffin, and its left eye was often open. It would be clad in the linen shroud it was buried in, and its teeth, hair, and nails may have grown somewhat, though in general fangs were not a feature. Chewing sounds were reported emanating from graves. The causes of vampiric generation were many and varied in original folklore. In Slavic and Chinese traditions , any corpse that
11400-423: The returned spirits of evil-doers or those who died insane, also bear vampiric attributes. The Persians were one of the first civilizations to have tales of blood-drinking demons: creatures attempting to drink blood from men were depicted on excavated pottery shards. Ancient Babylonia and Assyria had tales of the mythical Lilitu , synonymous with and giving rise to Lilith ( Hebrew לילית) and her daughters
11514-487: The schools of Tatarstan. According to the opponents of this change, it will further endanger the Tatar language and is a violation of the Tatarstan Constitution which stipulates the equality of Russian and Tatar languages in the republic. There are two main dialects of Tatar: All of these dialects also have subdivisions. Significant contributions to the study of the Tatar language and its dialects, were made by
11628-459: The skin of the chest was a way of "deflating" the bloated vampire. This is similar to a practice of " anti-vampire burial ": burying sharp objects, such as sickles, with the corpse, so that they may penetrate the skin if the body bloats sufficiently while transforming into a revenant. Decapitation was the preferred method in German and western Slavic areas, with the head buried between the feet, behind
11742-402: The son refused, he was found dead the following day. Blagojević supposedly returned and attacked some neighbours who died from loss of blood. In the second case, Miloš Čečar , an ex-soldier-turned-farmer who allegedly was attacked by a vampire years before, died while haying . After his death, people began to die in the surrounding area; it was widely believed that Miloš had returned to prey on
11856-585: The thirst for blood. Various regions of Africa have folktales featuring beings with vampiric abilities: in West Africa the Ashanti people tell of the iron-toothed and tree-dwelling asanbosam , and the Ewe people of the adze , which can take the form of a firefly and hunts children. The eastern Cape region has the impundulu , which can take the form of a large taloned bird and can summon thunder and lightning, and
11970-420: The torso have been discovered. Further measures included pouring boiling water over the grave or complete incineration of the body. In Southeastern Europe, a vampire could also be killed by being shot or drowned, by repeating the funeral service, by sprinkling holy water on the body, or by exorcism . In Romania, garlic could be placed in the mouth, and as recently as the 19th century, the precaution of shooting
12084-542: The use of a specific alphabet depends on the preference of the author. The Tatar language was made a de facto official language in Russia in 1917, but only within the Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic . Tatar is also considered to have been the official language in the short-lived Idel-Ural State , briefly formed during the Russian Civil War . The usage of Tatar declined during
12198-408: The vampire is generally held to be a fictitious entity, although belief in similar vampiric creatures (such as the chupacabra ) still persists in some cultures. Early folk belief in vampires has sometimes been ascribed to the ignorance of the body's process of decomposition after death and how people in pre-industrial societies tried to rationalize this, creating the figure of the vampire to explain
12312-639: The word Ubir or Upiór is based on the regions around the Volga (Itil) River and Pontic steppes . Upiór myth is through the migrations of the Kipchak - Cuman people to the Eurasian steppes allegedly spread. The Bulgarian format is впир (vpir, other names: onpyr, vopir, vpir, upir, upierz). Czech linguist Václav Machek proposes Slovak verb vrepiť sa 'stick to, thrust into', or its hypothetical anagram vperiť sa (in Czech,
12426-440: Was always heat present in these locations. Physical detail was not the central focus of the artists depicting such animals, and medieval bestiaries were not conceived as biological categorizations. Creatures like the unicorn and griffin were not categorized in a separate "mythological" section in medieval bestiaries, as the symbolic implications were of primary importance. Animals we know to have existed were still presented with
12540-556: Was among the first to suggest the existence of the " Highgate Vampire " and who later claimed to have exorcised and destroyed a whole nest of vampires in the area. In January 2005, rumours circulated that an attacker had bitten a number of people in Birmingham , England, fuelling concerns about a vampire roaming the streets. Local police stated that no such crime had been reported and that the case appears to be an urban legend . The chupacabra ("goat-sucker") of Puerto Rico and Mexico
12654-472: Was believed that the only way for one to catch this beast was to lead a virgin to its dwelling. Then, the unicorn was supposed to leap into her lap and go to sleep, at which point a hunter could finally capture it. In terms of symbolism, the unicorn was a metaphor for Christ. Unicorns represented the idea of innocence and purity. In the King James Bible , Psalm 92 :10 states, "My horn shalt thou exalt like
12768-465: Was jumped over by an animal, particularly a dog or a cat, was feared to become one of the undead. A body with a wound that had not been treated with boiling water was also at risk. In Russian folklore , vampires were said to have once been witches or people who had rebelled against the Russian Orthodox Church while they were alive. In Albanian folklore , the dhampir is the hybrid child of
12882-417: Was supposed to have been larger than all other animals. It was believed that the dragon had no harmful poison but was able to slay anything it embraced without any need for venom. Biblical scriptures speak of the dragon in reference to the devil, and they were used to denote sin in general during the Middle Ages. Dragons were said to have dwelled in places like Ethiopia and India, based on the idea that there
12996-482: Was synonymous with a vampire. Whoever denied God or his commandments became an eretik after his death, the improperly immortal figure that wandered the night in search of people to feed on. A paragraph on vampires was included in the second edition (1749) of De servorum Dei beatificatione et sanctorum canonizatione , On the beatification of the servants of God and on canonization of the blessed, written by Prospero Lambertini ( Pope Benedict XIV ). In his opinion, while
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